Flu Vaccine Case Study Essay - 1732 Words

The 2004-2005 U.S. Influenza Vaccine Shortage Influenza, or the flu, causes approximately 36,000 deaths and 200,000 hospitalizations annually in the United States and costs the American economy between $11 and $18 billion each year (General Accounting Office 2001b, page 1). The primary method for preventing influenza is the flu vaccine, which is generally available in a variety of settings including clinics, hospitals, schools, workplaces, and other convenient locations. The vaccine is typically distributed in October and November in anticipation of the winter flu season, which usually begins in late November and peaks in February. For the 2004-05 flu season, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommended that as many as†¦show more content†¦Though manufacturers take some risk in producing vaccines, efforts of the government to promote vaccination and stockpile vaccines helps to ensure markets for the salve of vaccines (Pollack 2004). Precipitating Factors in the 2004-05 Flu Crisis Two companies, Aventis and Chiron, produce all the flu vaccine for the US and hoped to provide 100 million dosages for the 2004-05 flu season. However, in August 2004, Chiron, a California-based company, announced to the FDA and the Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) in Britain that it would not be delivering the full US supply because 48 million doses produced at Chiron’s plant in Liverpool, England, had been contaminated. Concerns about quality and safety at the Liverpool plant emerged as early as 2003 following an FDA inspection. At that time, however, the FDA allowed Chiron to voluntarily fix the problems and, based on reassurances from Chiron, the US government believed the bacterial contamination issue would be resolved. The FDA proceeded to communicate with Chiron via letters, emails, and phone calls, while the MHRA took a more proactive approach including inspections of the plant (Brown 2004). In October 2004, to the surprise of the US government, the MHRA suspended Chiron’s license and closed the plant. Dr. Shaffner of the National Vaccine Advisory Committee stated that â€Å"we have been reassured on a regular basis† that the contamination was notShow MoreRelatedWill You Take The Flu Vaccine? Essay1466 Words   |  6 PagesYou Take the Flu Vaccine? Do you really know what’s going into your body when you go to the local pharmacy and get your yearly flu vaccine? An analysis of the flu vaccine process reveals multiple worries concerning the terminology used by doctors to describe vaccines and their symptoms; however, can these disadvantages keep you from getting the flu vaccine, which will increase your risk of becoming infected with influenza. American citizens are worried about getting their flu vaccines this year dueRead MoreFlu Vaccination Is A Contagious Virus Essay1574 Words   |  7 Pages The Flu is a highly contagious virus that causes many people to become sick and even die from. Americans do not understand that taking the flu vaccination is vital to help you become more immune to getting sick. There are many options that you can take to get the flu either a vaccine or a flu mist. Research has shown that people are avoiding the flu vaccine because of false conspiracy that have caused people to be afraid of getting the flu, thereby causing thousands of illness and death as aRead MoreVaccines And Its Effects On Children1404 Words   |  6 Pagesadverse reactions from the vaccines? Today, there are many vaccines, they are in such high demand that even a simple flu has a vaccine. Vaccines are created to protect us. The main function of vaccines it to build our immune system and fight against many bacterias. However, adverse reactions have become severe over the last couple of years, leaving some parents with no child. Therefore, parents shouldn’t be punished for not vaccinating their children because, vaccines can cause many adverse reactionsRead MoreThe Epidemic Of Influenza Vaccine1294 Words   |  6 Pages36,000 deaths associated with influenza, about 1,250 from the United States. Influenza (also known as the flu) is a highly contagious respiratory illness that attacks the upper respiratory tract. In some cases, it can cause a mild to severe illness, but in other in others it can lead to death. Many try to eliminate getting the flu at all by getting an influenza vaccine. The influenza vaccine has produced controversy all over the United States, as some say it is highly dangerous, while most medicalRead MoreFlu Vaccine Memorandum1735 Words   |  7 PagesFlu Memorandum To: Representative Henry Waxman House Committee on Government Reform From: Senior Policy Analyst Date: 9/18/2012 Re: Influenza Shortage Distribution Recommendations This memo outlines ways to address the recurring shortages of the influenza vaccine that occurred in the United States between 2000 and 2004. There were two important contributing factors to these vaccine shortages. First, there has been a significant reduction over the past few decades in the number ofRead MoreEthical Dilemmas Of The United States1235 Words   |  5 Pageseveryone obeys the law, ethical cases form. In Springfield, Missouri, a holistic nurse got fired for fighting against Cox South hospital policies. Carla Brock has been a nurse at Cox South hospital and not only refused the flu shot, but also refused to wear a mask. She refused due to religious beliefs, she gets short of breath while wearing the mask, and she feels the mask is meant to intimidate and humiliate those who refuse the shot. The ethical question in this case study is to decide if Carla shouldRead MoreA Case Study on Infectious Diseases1399 Words   |  6 PagesInfectious Disease Case Study Introduction Recent reports from the CDC have indicated that the flu vaccine is not easily available in the market. Based on this one reason, the report has suggested that 50% of at-risk population who have contracted the virus will not be able to receive inoculations for several months. This is one of the main challenges that are to be faced by the organization in the upcoming season. Transmission And Symptoms, Treatments of Flu Conventional flu is also referredRead MoreThe Science And History And Development Of The Influenza Vaccines1737 Words   |  7 Pages Introduction Influenza vaccines, also known as flu shots, are vaccines that claim to protect against influenza. The extent to which the influenza vaccine reduces the risk of disease under controlled conditions is known as the vaccine s efficacy. The testing of vaccine efficacy is quite stringent and involves Phase I, II, and III trials. Two of which, are double-blinded placebo controlled trials. Influenza adapts, and mutates such that is never the same from year to year, and therefore makingRead MoreTransmission and Symptoms of Influenza1537 Words   |  6 PagesInfectious Disease: Influenza The Transmission and Symptoms of the Flu, Current Treatments, and Mitigations Influenza (Flu) viruses are usually spread by droplets through the air when people sneeze, cough, or talk. Though not as common, the virus may also be spread when a person touches a surface or object the virus is on and then touches the mouth or nose. Symptoms include fever, aches, chills, tiredness, sudden onset, coughing, sneezing and sore throat. The CDC reports that most healthy adultsRead Morearguments against the flu vaccine1311 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿Lethal Injection: A study of influenza vaccines Every fall season we hear the question; did you get your flu shot yet? It is supposed to protect you from that nasty flu virus that circulates our communities during the fall and winter months. But, did you know that in 2011 the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) Adverse Event Reporting Systems Website (AERS) reported 51 deaths caused by the flu vaccine in the United States (U.S.) (CDC,2012). According to National Vaccine Information Center (NVIC)

Diary and Experience Sampling Research †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Diary and Experience Sampling Research. Answer: Introduction Research and analysis forms a constructive part of any study or research design. The research questions are based upon the present problem situation and points towards comprehending the plausible solutions for redressal of the same. The research questions are based upon analysing the puzzle for presenting a clear picture of the present situation. The puzzle is then broken down into parts and the components are separately dealt with. The current study focuses on the different aspects of social research and the various contributing factors for conducting a research study. The assignment has been divided into a number of components such as data creation methods and the advantages or the limitations attached with such methods. In order to design a research question there is a need to focus upon the basic definition of research. Here research could be defined as a systematic investigation or inquiry which contributes in developing the knowledge of a theory further. For the current assignment the research questions based upon a social issue in Melbourne had been taken into consideration. In this respect, the social research forms a small component under the vast umbrella of research. The research is conducted with a view to creating knowledge for the betterment of the social world. As commented by Fraley and Hudson (2014), the components of the social world are connected with each other in terms of procurement of services for the feasibility of mankind. Therefore, the disruption in one of the components can disturb some of the other elements too. Thus, formulating the research question is one of the pivotal components of research study and design. Therefore, a number of parameters need to be taken into consi deration during formulating a research question. A number of guidelines had been followed over here for designing of an effective research question such as framing relevant questions. The questions to be designed in terms of research and academic limits of the researcher should be manageable enough. The questions should be substantial and connected with original scenario. The questions should justify the objectives of the research thesis throughout and should be clear and concise. As mentioned by Rea and Parker (2014), a concise and clear content is easily relatable and are successful in generating sufficient interest in the readers regrading the research question. The questions had been designed with a view to offer sufficient scope for the explanation and detailed discussion of the learning outcomes of the course. However, for designing a research question which is socially and empirically researchable a number of detailed observations need to be made. Some of the data had been collected by talking to people, surveying or conduct ing experiments with people. However, as argued by Brinkmann (2014), often lack of sufficient support and participation from people can limit the scope of establishments of the research design. The research questions should highlight something perplexing and surprising. This helps in the exploration of new avenues or areas which had not been covered before. Data required for answering research questions The collection of data forms a governing factor for evaluation and analysis of the research questions. The data could be further divided into two major components that are primary and secondary data. The primary data refers to newly collected information, which has been gathered by the researcher for answering of the research questions. The secondary data refers to already existent data present in the form of literature sources and peer reviewed journal or articles. For the present research, the researcher has collected primary data for evaluation of the research question. The primary data are again both quantitative and qualitative in nature and here both have been considered. The data have been collected by conducting interviews and surveys where a part of the Melbourne residents where asked questions pertaining to the advantages or disadvantages associated with inculcation of energy efficient building practices. As reported by some of the Melbourne residents the use of energy effi cient components can increase the infrastructural cost of the buildings. On the contrary, some had reported that the use of such energy efficient devices could help in reducing the electricity and power consumption of the buildings as a whole. Therefore, the implementation of such methods is both economical and also maintains the social responsibility of maintaining an energy sufficient environment (Palinkas et al. 2015). Therefore, the researcher was put in a situation of fix where opposite views were provided by the participants of the survey. Therefore, empirical data were collected where the percentage responses of the participants were used for arriving at a suitable solution. The method of data creation forms a very important component of designing a research question. For the purpose of data collection a structured open ended interview questionnaire had been designed. The detailed responses provided by the participants regrading the benefits of limitations inculcation of energy efficient devices in constructing buildings in the Melbourne region of Australia. The collected responses were put into more concise and structured forms for further evaluation. A further quantitative method of data collection was used for generating statistical and empirical data. The questions asked over here were mostly close ended with limited options where the participants could only answer in a yes or no. Additionally, the questions with open ended answers were mostly objective in nature limiting the scope of further explanation by the participants. In the present research method unstructured questions had been encouraged by the researcher. Here, the course of conversation further determined the set of questions to be asked throughout the interview. For the research study three data creation methods which had been followed over here which are conducting of interviews, designing of online focus groups and framing of an online questionnaire. As commented by Goodman et al (2013), the designing of the focus groups would help in generating concise data. Advantages and disadvantages of data collection methods For the present assignment three different methods of data collection have been used such as designing a focus group, constructing an online questionnaire and conducting an interview. The methods have been compiled to arrive at a summative result which could be further expanded by the researcher. There are a number of strengths and limitations of each data creation methods which could be further analysed for selecting the best alternative. The selection of the focus group helps in conducting the research in lesser amount of time. However, as argued by Flick (2014), most of the times comparatively lesser number of participants appears for the interview than actually approached. This could hinder data collection process and further evaluation of the research questions. On the contrary, conducting an interview could help in the expression of interest by the participants. This also helps in gathering suitable objectives from the participants which could be built upon further. However, for the current study the process of conducting a survey for data collection had been most helpful. This is because the responses could be presented in percentages which help in eradicating any further biases. As argued by Ormston et al.(2014), a number of ethical considerations had to be taken into consideration over here which includes taking proper consent from the participants. Thus, forced participation or where limited information had been provided to the participants about the data collection process could be an unethical practise method. In this respect, further secondary data could be used by the researcher for referral and verification of his study design. However, there are limitations with respect to languages and keywords. Some of the journals are available in languages other than English which could limit the scope of research (Muraki et al 2017). Similarly, a reference to the secondary sources could help in arriving at more acceptable results. Conclusion The current assignment focuses on the concept of designing of research questions for arriving at a suitable conclusion. The study here highlights a research question where the use of energy efficient techniques for improving building standards in Melbourne had been discussed. Here, a number of parameters have been focussed upon by the researcher for designing the research questions. The emphasis had been given on designing more relatable questions which would address the social issue and the present problem situation faced in Melbourne. The major contributing factors over here are the data forms or the data collection methods which further governs the success of the research study. For the current research, primary data only had been taken into consideration where both quantitative and qualitative research design has been opted. The mixed methods along with the empirical and the statistical data help in arriving at as suitable solution. However, a number of limitations are faced in t he data collection method which includes the consent to be taken from the participants for conducting the interviews. Moreover, the participants should be notified about the interview process much in advance. The designing of the right focus groups serves as a limiting factor over here. References Boeije, H., van Wesel, F. and Slagt, M., (2014). Guidance for deciding upon use of primary mixed methods studies in research synthesis: lessons learned in childhood trauma.Quality Quantity,48(2), pp.1075-1088. Brinkmann, S., (2014). Interview. InEncyclopedia of Critical Psychology(pp. 1008-1010). Springer New York. Flick, U., (2014).An introduction to qualitative research. London:Sage. Fraley, R.C. and Hudson, N.W., (2014). Review of intensive longitudinal methods: An introduction to diary and experience sampling research. Gandomi, A. and Haider, M., (2015). Beyond the hype: Big data concepts, methods, and analytics.International Journal of Information Management,35(2), pp.137-144. Goodman, J.K., Cryder, C.E. and Cheema, A., (2013). Data collection in a flat world: The strengths and weaknesses of Mechanical Turk samples.Journal of Behavioral Decision Making,26(3), pp.213-224. Muraki, M. and Hirata, Y., Canon Kabushiki Kaisha, (2017).Drawing apparatus, lithography system, pattern data creation method, drawing method, and method of manufacturing articles. U.S. Patent 9,583,311. Ormston, R., Spencer, L., Barnard, M. and Snape, D., (2014). The foundations of qualitative research.Qualitative research practice: A guide for social science students and researchers,2. Ott, R.L. and Longnecker, M.T., (2015).An introduction to statistical methods and data analysis. Nelson Education. Palinkas, L.A., Horwitz, S.M., Green, C.A., Wisdom, J.P., Duan, N. and Hoagwood, K., (2015). Purposeful sampling for qualitative data collection and analysis in mixed method implementation research.Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research,42(5), pp.533-544. Rea, L.M. and Parker, R.A., (2014).Designing and conducting survey research: A comprehensive guide. New Jersey:John Wiley Sons.

Psychological Analysis of Girl Interupted free essay sample

Running Head: BPD in Girl Interrupted Borderline Personality Disorder in Girl Interrupted Girl Interrupted is a movie based on Susanna Kaysen’s novel, which was inspired by her stay in a mental institution in the 1960s. Incidentally the main character, played by Winona Ryder, is named Susanna. She is eighteen years old and begins the movie by reflecting back on the events leading up to her visit to the psychologist. She has just graduated from high school and other than being an aspiring writer, has no plans for her life. In addition she has flashbacks of her attempted suicide, though she denies taking a bottle of aspirin with vodka. When she was brought to the hospital they found bruises on her wrist, but she claimed she had no bones in her wrist. The psychologist concluded that Susanna needed some rest and sent her to Claymore, which is a private mental institution. We will write a custom essay sample on Psychological Analysis of Girl Interupted or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In the institution, the psychiatrist diagnosis’s Susanna with borderline personality disorder. While in the institution Susanna meets various other women with disorders ranging from eating disorders to psychopaths. After two years she is released from the institution and deemed clear. There are many theories behind why people develop such personality disorders. The theories take psychoanalytic, contemporary, and/or developmental approaches to discover the various reasons why people develop with given personalities. According to Otto Kernberg, there are two developmental tasks an individual must accomplish. Failing to accomplish a certain developmental task often corresponds with an increased risk in developing certain personality disorders. The first developmental task is psychic clarification of self and other. Failing to complete this task causes one to not be able to differentiate one’s own experience from those of others. Not accomplishing the second task, overcoming splitting, results in an increased risk to develop a borderline personality. Kernberg theorized that borderline personality disorder is formulated by the failure to develop in childhood. In addition, Kernberg takes some of Freud’s view points and further theorizes that people who suffer from this disorder have an impaired ego. Freud defines one’s ego as a part of the mind which constrains the id to reality, and is the â€Å"referee† between the superego and id. People with borderline personality disorder externally scatter and internally contradict their concept of themselves. Kernberg states, borderlines can describe themselves for five hours without your getting a realistic picture of what theyre like. Furthermore, borderline personality disorder is clinically defined as ones instability which is evident in their relationships, emotions, behavior and image of themselves. Persons with such disorder may have feelings of abandonment. Often in efforts to manipulate people back into relationships, they take part in self-manipulating behavior or suicidal attempts. Suicide is sometimes attempted impulsively by persons in periods of extreme depression. In addition people often experience strong emotions and strong desires for intimacy. Susanna suffers greatly from these along with other symptoms of borderline personality disorder. One can see from the opening scene in her attempted suicide, that that was one of the leading symptoms. In her out reach for attention she overdosed with a bottle of aspirin along with a bottle of vodka. She also claimed that she had no bones in her hand, which could have been further self-mutilation or another delusional disorder. In addition she has a flashback of her intimate relations with the father of a girl from her high school, along with another man she meets at a club. When she is not around the type of intimacy she utterly wants, she develops a very close relationship with Lisa, who is a patient of the mental institution. This strong desire to always be in a relationship is another prime symptom of this particular personality disorder. The reason for her development of her disorder was caused in early childhood. Both of Susanna’s parents were more focused on leading the perfect suburban life, and paid little attention to her. Thus from such neglect, they never realized that she was being sexual abused by their neighbor, who occasionally babysat her when her parents were out. Susanna began her troubles because she began to become unable to differentiate what was correct and what was not, further leading her to have the inability to distinguish right from wrong. She had no one to turn to and helping her develop is a crucial stage, according to Kernberg. In conclusion, Otto Kernberg’s theory of the two crucial developmental factors in childhood and the consequences of failing such tasks, appear to be appropriate theories behind the onset of Susanna’s borderline personality disorder. Although this theory has its limitations because it is not always necessary that this particular disorder is developed in early childhood. There are various theories looking into the biological factors that could predetermine whether someone will develop this disorder. In addition, there is always the question as to why Susanna was able to overcome this disorder, and why others cannot, thus further brining into play genetics/biology. All in all, the mind is endless and everyday people are coming up with new theories and reasons behind why people are who they are and do what they do.

Free Essays on Effects Of Political Parties

Since the last of the Whig party left office in 1852, the American political system has been primarily a two party system. The Democrats and the Republicans have been the two parties fighting for the Presidency since that time. There have been many other parties since that time, but mainly, these two have gone unopposed against each other. However, how much good do these parties actually do? Would our country be run as effectively if the presence of political parties was no longer a factor? It is the opinion of the authors that the U.S. Government would exist without political parties and may, in fact be stronger. The concept of political parties seems to go against what it means to be a politician: to represent his or her constituents. More time, money and effort, it seems is put into getting elected to an office than actually doing work for the people in that office. One fairly recent example is seen in the case of the proposed federal Balanced Budget Amendment. Mark Hatfield, Republican Oregon Senator, went against his parties wishes and voted against the amendment. His party nearly abandoned him for choosing the people over his party. Many senators are faced with the same decision every day, but instead stick with party beliefs and not what they feel would be the best for the people. In order for true democracy to be achieved in our government, we feel drastic changes need to occur. Review Of The Literature Since the mid 1850's, the Democrats and Republicans have had control of the nation government. The only place where opposition was felt was at the state and local levels. However, in the early days of our country, third and fourth party candidates played important roles in politics. A few of these parties from our history are the: Democrat-Republicans, Jefferson Republicans, Whigs and Federalists. Many other lesser known or hardly known at all parties were the: S... Free Essays on Effects Of Political Parties Free Essays on Effects Of Political Parties Since the last of the Whig party left office in 1852, the American political system has been primarily a two party system. The Democrats and the Republicans have been the two parties fighting for the Presidency since that time. There have been many other parties since that time, but mainly, these two have gone unopposed against each other. However, how much good do these parties actually do? Would our country be run as effectively if the presence of political parties was no longer a factor? It is the opinion of the authors that the U.S. Government would exist without political parties and may, in fact be stronger. The concept of political parties seems to go against what it means to be a politician: to represent his or her constituents. More time, money and effort, it seems is put into getting elected to an office than actually doing work for the people in that office. One fairly recent example is seen in the case of the proposed federal Balanced Budget Amendment. Mark Hatfield, Republican Oregon Senator, went against his parties wishes and voted against the amendment. His party nearly abandoned him for choosing the people over his party. Many senators are faced with the same decision every day, but instead stick with party beliefs and not what they feel would be the best for the people. In order for true democracy to be achieved in our government, we feel drastic changes need to occur. Review Of The Literature Since the mid 1850's, the Democrats and Republicans have had control of the nation government. The only place where opposition was felt was at the state and local levels. However, in the early days of our country, third and fourth party candidates played important roles in politics. A few of these parties from our history are the: Democrat-Republicans, Jefferson Republicans, Whigs and Federalists. Many other lesser known or hardly known at all parties were the: S...

Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy in the management of foot ulceration and its Literature review

Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy in the management of foot ulceration and its efficacy within the lower limb - Literature review Example Wound in lower limb are common and have tendency to turn chronic. There are basically 3 types of ulcers which can present in the lower limb. They are venous stasis ulcers, arterial or ischemic ulcers and neuropathic or diabetic ulcers. It is important to identify the type of wound because management and prognosis are different for different types of wound. Venous stasis ulcers are mainly located below the knee and in the inner aspects of the leg just above the ankle, like the medial malleolus (Gabriel and Camp, 2008). They occur when inadequate action of the calf muscle to pump out blood results in venous hypertension (Gabriel and Camp, 2008). The base of the ulcer is usually red, the borders are irregular and the ulcer may be covered with yellowish tissue. Fluid drainage is a characteristic feature of venous ulcer. The surrounding skin will be discolored and swollen and may feel warm (Gabriel and Camp, 2008). Ischemic or arterial ulcers are usually located in the feet, especially in regions where there is friction between toes or parts of feet with shoes, or when there is a deformity. They are more likely to occur in the periphery where there is decreased blood supply. The ulcer base is yellowish, grey or black and does not bleed (Gabriel and Camp, 2008). The borders are initially irregular and later have a regular appearance. Neuropathic ulcers commonly occur in diabetic patients and they are usually located at pressure points on the plantar aspect of the feet. Neuropathy causes loss of foot sensation and also changes in sweat-producing glands increasing the risk of being unaware of foot trauma, injuries and callosities. The ulcers appear punched out with the surrounding skin callosed. The ulcer may appear pink or brown (Gabriel and Camp, 2008). Lower extremity ulcers have varied prognosis and are associated with many complications. They are the

Assign 5 mjtjm Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Assign 5 mjtjm - Assignment Example he author demonstrates the questions remains unanswered by stating that there is the absence of accepted viewpoints as the existing hypothesis were mainly on qualitative considerations that allowed different interpretation. The author chooses to use quantitative factors to answer the questions. The author mentions prior research carried out by Humphreys (1929 and others). The researcher considered that the variation of direct radiation was determined by the change in atmospheric transparency due to dust emitted during volcanic eruptions. However, the author disagrees with the findings arguing that the variation of the radiations could also be caused by increased atmospheric dust emitted by human activities1. The author uses observational images from the meteorological satellites, data from geological investigations on the level of volcanic activity and results of calculations of monthly mean values of radiation. There are no sampling issues involved in the research. The dependent variable in the study is that the changes in Earth’s temperature. The independent variables are the variations in the transparency of the atmosphere that depends on the level of volcanic activity. The hypothesis to be tested is precise as temperature change is related to change in solar radiations2. The author uses inferential statistics which is an appropriate approach based on the data available. The assumption is that the change in temperature and transparency in the atmosphere are linear. The author’s findings are that human activities influence the climate as the activities produce energy that produces heat that is an additional to the heat generated by the solar radiations. The author has an expectation that one of the glaciers expansions could reach the critical latitude that would result in complete glaciations of the Earth setting in. The author borrowed the conceptual definition from a piece of prior research3. The author concludes that human activities should be taken

Child Labour in the Industrial Revolution | Essay

Child Labour in the Industrial Revolution | Essay Nardinelli (1980; pp.739-55) argues, contrary to popular opinion, that the employment of children in the early Industrial Revolution was not ceased by the Factory Acts of 1833[1] and 1844[2], but rather that the Factory Acts simply speeded up a process that was already underway, in terms of technological changes and increases in family incomes, which meant that child labour was no longer necessary (Nardinelli, 1980; p.739). Using data from school enrolment rates, Nardinelli (1980; p. 751) shows that, following the introduction of the Factory Acts, no difference between school enrolment rates existed between the textile districts and the rest of the country. Nardinelli (1980; p.755) concludes that the textile industry, which used child labour, was only one of the industries that formed the Industrial Revolution, and, indeed, was almost the only industry to use child labour, and that, as such, the issue of child labour and its role in the success of the Industrial Revolution is diminis hed. Verdon (2002; pp.299-323) also discusses child labour, in rural areas, and its relation to women’s employment, family income and the 1834 Poor Law Report. As Verdon (2002; p.299) argues, it is important to take a regional approach to studies of the Industrial Revolution, and its effect on the lives of children throughout the nineteenth century, as child labour levels, family incomes and social class relations varied widely from region to region during the time of the Industrial Revolution. Verdon (2002, p.322) concludes that region, gender and age were all key determinants of labourers’ experience of work in nineteenth century rural areas, with children contributing a substantial proportion of the household income in 1834, across every region. At this time, therefore, rural child labour was an important source of childhood income. How this was affected by the introduction of Factory Acts (which, of course, would not directly have affected rural employment, outside of ur ban factories) is not discussed. Horrell and Humphries (1995; pp. 485-516) look at child labour and the family economy during the Industrial Revolution, using data from household budgets of this period, and found that during the period of early industrialisation, the number of children working and the number of children working in factories increased, and the age at which children started work decreased, due to the fact that older children became economically independent from families at an early age, thus leaving younger siblings to work to increase the household income. Horrell and Humphries (1995; p. 510) conclude that, indeed, during the early Industrial Revolution, little children were exploited, in that there was an â€Å"enormous growth in the employment of children in factories† during this period. Horrell and Humphries (1995; p. 511) show, supplementing the work of Verdon (2002), that there was an â€Å"intensification of child employment in the factory districts† during the early Industrial R evolution and that this was in stark contrast to the under- and unemployment of children in the rural South East during the later Industrial Revolution. In contrast to Nardinelli (1980), Horrell and Humphries (1995; p. 511) conclude that the Factory Acts did have the effect of reducing children’s employment in factories, but that this doesn’t seem to have had any effect on the numbers of children within families who were expected to work, and that â€Å"legislation†¦.may have displaced more girls than boys†, who then, it is hypothesised, moved into domestic service, for example, thus remaining in employment. Horn (1974; pp.779-796) looks at child workers in the pillow lace and straw plait trades in Buckinghamshire and Bedfordshire, stating that the cottage industries in the regions outside of the urban centres of the Industrial Revolution (i.e., the towns across Lancashire) provided employment for many female workers, who, otherwise, would have been employed in domestic service. Thus, again, a regional view of child labour during the Industrial Revolution proves important, as this work of Horn (1974) essentially goes against the conclusions of Horrell and Humphries (1995). Horn (1974; p.795) concludes that cottage industries, such as these two industries, gave much-needed supplement to the household incomes of working-class families in these counties, and that similar cottage industries in other rural areas must have had the same effect too. Horn (1974; p. 795) notes that â€Å"the general education of the children (who worked in the cottage industries) was neglected† and the next section will look in further detail at how the education of children changed during the period of the Industrial Revolution. Johnson (1970; pp.96-119) looks at educational policy and social control in early Victorian England, showing that educating the poor seemed to be one of the strongest of early Victorian obsessions, with concern for education figuring largely, for example, as we have seen, in the Factory Act of 1833, and with private institutions, such as the National Society, launching many educational projects during the period 1838 and 1843 (Johnson; p.97). Johnson (1979; p.119) concludes, essentially, however, that the concern for educating the poor as expressed by early Victorian governments was more about controlling the working class population than it was about providing opportunity for the working classes, although issues surrounding what he terms the ‘educational problem’ of this time were hotly debated[3]. Reay (1991; pp.89-129) looks at the context and meaning of popular literacy in nineteenth century rural England, and shows that functional analyses of literacy tell little about the actual educational state of people living and working during the Industrial Revolution (Reay, 1991; p.128) as recorded declines in illiteracy amongst rural child workers, for example, often reflect the acquisition of a new skill, such as writing, rather than a shift towards full literacy. Analyses of signatures and marks are also not particularly useful, argues Reay (1991; p.129) as these can tell us little about the actual literacy level of the signatory, especially, as he argues, for much of the nineteenth century population, reading equalled literacy, in its correct cultural context, such that â€Å"the ability to sign one’s name is, actually, one of the least interesting aspects of literacy† (Reay; 1991; p.129). Snell (1999; pp.122-168) looks at the role Sunday Schools played in the education of working class child labourers during the Industrial Revolution, and shows that Sunday Schools were widespread around both the urban centres of the Industrial Revolution and across the English regions, and that Sunday Schools, essentially, through a religious educational policy, taught many nineteenth century child labourers the value of education, and also about civic responsibility, although often, as Snell (1999; p. 168) notes, â€Å"clerical control was strict and the syllabus narrow†, such that, much as Johnson (1979) argued, at this time, education for working class child labourers was as much about social control as it was about providing opportunity to this section of the population. Thompson’s (1981) paper looks at the issue of social control in Victorian Britain, arguing that social order in Britain was â€Å"subject to strains imposed by the dual processes of urbanisation and industrialisation† (Thompson, 1981; p.189), arguing that social control led to social transformation in Victorian society, throughout the course of the Industrial Revolution, not through legal systems, police forces and the threat of prisons, but through social control (Thompson, 1981; p.207) exercised from within each social class almost as an internal ‘thermostat’ of order, with social organisms such as community being important in defining, adapting and shaping popular culture (Thompson, 1981; p.208). This social control also included controls over relaxation and pleasure, with football, social clubs and music halls arising as a way in which the working classes could find release from their daily grind (Thompson, 1981; p.208). Conclusion This paper has looked at the issues of child labour, home life (in terms of household incomes and household demographics), and education in nineteenth century Britain, showing that successive changes in legislature provided better working conditions for child labourers during the nineteenth century, and that these changes in legislature meant that children were, at least to some extent, better educated towards the end of the period of the Industrial Revolution than they had been at the beginning of this period of history. This education, which, although, as we have seen, seemed to have been designed with the explicit purpose of exerting social control, did push forward some changes to child labour, in terms of shifting work from full-time to half-time, and, as we have seen, shifting the demographics of work, with younger children entering work in order to provide supplemental household income, as the older children of the household, during this period, had a tendency to become indepe ndent more quickly, leaving the household to enter in to domestic service, for example, which left a hole in the household’s purses, which needed to be filled. Education, during the nineteenth century was formulated through the Education Act of 1870, and was provided both by government institutions, as we have seen, and also private and religious organisations, through the Sunday School network, for example. As suggested, there is, perhaps, no consistent way in which to measure the effect of schooling on the literacy levels at the time, except to say that perhaps more children were able to write. It is clear, from the reviews of the articles presented here, that the working class developed as a clear cultural phenomenon, with social control coming from within this class, as a response to community expectations of behaviour. Thus, in sum, child labour was prevalent throughout the nineteenth century, across Industrial Britain (i.e., both in the urban centres and in rural areas) but this labour was, towards the end of the century, better regulated, in conjunction with increasing educational opportunities and standards, which led to the rise of a clear, self-controlling, working class. Bibliography Gordon Baker, The Romantic and Radical Nature of the 1870 Education Act, History of Education, 30,3 (2001), pp.211-232 Pamela Horn, Child Workers in the pillow lace and straw plait trades of Victorian Buckinghamshire and Bedfordshire, Historical Journal, 17 (1974), pp.779-96 S.Horrell Jane Humphries, The Exploitation of little children: Child Labour and the family economy in the Industrial Revolution Explorations in Economic History, 32 (1995), pp.485-516 Richard Johnson, Education Policy and Social Control in Early Victorian England, Past and Present, 49 (1970), pp.96-119 Clark Nardinelli, Child Labour and the Factory Acts, Journal of Economic History, 40 (1980), PP.739-55 Barry Reary, The Context and Meaning of popular Literacy: Some Evidence from Nineteenth-Century Rural Ireland, Past Present, 131(1991), pp.89-129 K.D.M. Snell, The Sunday-School Movement in England and Wales: Child Labour, Denominational Control and Working-Class Culture, Past Present, 164 (1999), pp.122-16 F.M.L Thompson, Social Control in Victorian Britain, Economic History Review, 34,2 (1981) pp.189-208 Nicola Verdon, The rural labour market in the early nineteenth century: womens and childrens employment,family income, and the 1834 Poor Law Report, Economic History Review, LV,2 (2002),PP.299-323 Footnotes [1] which limited the employment of children to children over nine years of age (see Nardinelli, 1980). [2] which established the half-time system, whereby children worked half-day and went to school half-day (see Nardinelli, 1980) [3] Baker (2001; pp.211-232), for example, takes Johnson’s (1970) work further, and looks in detail at the 1870 Education Act and the consequences of this Act, in terms of what he terms ‘the distribution of life chances’ (Baker; p.211). Memory Consolidation and Reconsolidation: Drug Addiction Memory Consolidation and Reconsolidation: Drug Addiction Memory Consolidation and Reconsolidation: Implications for Drug Addiction Jayan Samarakoon Abstract This paper looks at the current knowledge and debate surrounding memory reconsolidation. After a brief overview of consolidation and reconsolidation including the associated theories of each process the paper delved into the literature surrounding reconsolidation and critically evaluated research articles which either reinforced or shed doubt onto the physiological mechanisms of reconsolidation. The paper then discussed possible applications of this knowledge in the treatment of drug addiction, in particular the efficacy of blocking NDMA receptors to disrupt reconsolidation. Guidelines for future research concerning human trials were outlined. Memory Consolidation and Reconsolidation: Implications for Drug Addiction Memories affect human behaviour (Nader Einarsson, 2010). An understanding of how memories are formed would give insight into the mechanisms that underlie behaviour. This paper will look at the physiological processes that affect memories such as consolidation and reconsolidation in particular the current knowledge and debate surrounding these memory processes. The paper will then delve into how this knowledge could affect psychology, in particular the realm of drug addiction. This will be done by critically evaluating the current literature and outlining areas for future research. Memories are believed to be located in the synapses between neurons of the brain (Nader Einarsson, 2010). New memories change the strength of the synapse which results in an adjustment of the specific memory (Clopath, 2012). Memory is categorised into two forms, short-term and long-term memory. The difference between the two is a process called consolidation which affects information stored in long-term memory via strengthening the neuron pathways affected by the memory called the memory trace (Nader Einarsson, 2010). Consolidation is the process of stabilizing a memory trace after the initial behavioural experience (Dubnau Chiang, 2013). Many different studies have found that several types of interference such as inhibiting protein synthesis, disrupting the function of specific proteins, and brain lesions or trauma can disrupt the process of consolidation (Alberini, 2011). These studies have formed the basis of understanding the different consolidation models. Consolidation consi sts of two distinct processes, synaptic consolidation and system consolidation (Clopath, 2012). Synaptic consolidation involves repeated stimulation of a neuron called long-term potentiation, which results in stable changes at the synapse over time while systems consolidation is a process where memories that are dependant of the hippocampus become independent and move to a separate brain region. Synapses can vary in strength, which is referred to as plasticity (Clopath, 2012). A change in synaptic plasticity can be a short-term change which lasts a few minutes to a long-term change which can last up to a life-time. A long-term change in plasticity is the basic definition of synaptic consolidation. This process allows memory to be consolidation within a single synapse, which cannot be altered by any new memories (Clopath, 2012). Synaptic consolidation usually occurs within the first few minutes to hours after the memory encoding has happened (Dudai, 2004). The physiological conditions that cause synaptic consolidation involve many different processes which result in a physical change of the synapse (Dubnau Chiang, 2013). They include modification and reorganisation of the synapse protein including the membrane receptors. Intracellular signalling proteins such as cAMP and MAPK are recruited to activate cellular remodelling and growth during synaptic consolidation (Dudai, 2004). The standard model of system consolidation posits that memory is dependent on the location of the encoding in the mediotemporal lobe (Dubnau Chiang, 2013). Initial memories are formed in the hippocampus via synaptic consolidation and then over a period of weeks or more the memory trace reorganises so that the retention is maintained by the neocortex and is not dependent on the hippocampus anymore (Dudai, 2004). There are some criticisms with this model of systems consolidation. For starters only declarative memory is processed by the hippocampus and as such this model cannot apply to non-declarative memory. An alternative view is called multiple trace theory. Multiple trace theory proposes that the hippocampus region is always involved in the retention and retrieval of episodic memories and that semantic memory follows the standard model of system consolidation (Dubnau Chiang, 2013). These models of consolidation assume that the process of consolidation occurs just once. This assumption is currently undergoing some criticism and debate on whether it is valid or not. Research has shown that the retrieval of a memory trace can induce a phase where the memory is malleable to change (Tronson Taylor, 2007). One paper proposed that memory was a dynamic process with two different states, an active state where memories both new and reactivated are labile to change and an inactive state where the memories stabilise over time (Nader Einarsson, 2010). Memory reconsolidation is induced by the reactivation of a specific memory (Reichelt Lee, 2013). This reactivation process causes the memory trace to become destabilised into a ‘labile’ state, a state where the memory pathway can be changed. The process to return the destabilised memory into a stable form is called reconsolidation and is dependent on protein synthesis (Reichelt Lee, 2013). Destabilisation occu rs when L-type voltage-gated calcium channels and cannabinoid CB1 receptors are activated, along with synaptic protein degradation in the dorsal hippocampus (Reichelt Lee, 2013). A study examined if it was possible to reactivate a consolidated memory into a labile state and introduce new information (Forcato, Rodrà ­guez, Pedreira, Maldonado, 2010). Participants were asked to learn an association between five cue-syllables and their respective response-syllables. 24 hours later the memory was reactivated and the subjects were given additional information, in this case three extra syllable pairs. The participants were tested on their knowledge the third day. The results showed that the new information was successfully incorporated into the former memory since both sets of syllables were successfully retained in memory when the instruction stated to add the new information to the old memory, unlike the condition where the instruction was omitted. This condition showed evidence that the two sets of information were encoded independently from each other due to interference in retrieval. The study used a verbal reminder (briefly mentioned the previous pairs) to try and trigger reconsolidation. They did not asses if retrieval of the memory actually occurred. One method of bypassing the requirement of assessing if memory retrieval occurred is to design an experiment where the process of memory reconsolidation is interrupted, which should impair memory retrieval at a later date. A study conducted in 2010 successfully demonstrated that if the reactivation of a memory is followed by an emotionally aversive stimulus results in impairment when recalled at a later date (Strange, Kroes, Fan, Dolan, 2010). This study gives evidence that memories can be impaired following their retrieval. Reconsolidation has been found to occur not just in humans but in other animals as well (Robinson Franklin, 2010). A Considerable amount of research exists which indicates that when an animal is reminded of a previously learned experience the memory of that experience undergoes reconsolidation. This is supported by findings which show that treatment with a protein synthesis inhibitor immediately after re-exposing the experience can produce amnesia of the memory itself, due to the fact that recalling a memory triggers reconsolidation which requires the production of new proteins (Cai, Pearce, Chen, Glanzman, 2012). One study looked at how the amnestic drugs propranolol and midazolam would affect reconsolidation in rats (Robinson Franklin, 2010). They did this by exposing the rats to a box which contained both morphine and a saline solution in separate areas. The rats were exposed to this apparatus either four or eight times depending on the experimental condition. Afterwards the ra ts received either no dosage, or an injection of an amnestic drug. The rats were retested two and seven days after the dosage in the four pairings condition and with the eight pairings condition they were tested eight times in 48 hour blocks. The result showed that the amnestic drugs disrupted reconsolidation for weak memories (four pairings condition) and had little effect for strong memories (eight pairings condition). A study conducted by Cammarota, et al. (2009), examined if reconsolidation would occur in an inhibitory avoidance task using rats. The rats were trained in an inhibitory avoidance task and 24 hours later were exposed to the task again. After the exposure the rats were injected with a protein synthesis inhibitor and tested on the avoidance task for the third time. The results revealed that the protein synthesis inhibitor had no effect on memory retention. If reconsolidation had occurred there would have been a change in memory retention. This study used a short time period to measure reconsolidation. In the study conducted by Robinson Franklin (2010), there was evidence that reconsolidation had occurred yet in the study by Cammarota, et al. (2009), there was no evidence of memory reconsolidation occurring. There are two major differences between the two studies which may shed light into the discrepancy regarding the results. The study which showed reconsolidation used many repeated exposures to the memory stimulus and measured the possible effects of reconsolidation over a period of two weeks (Robinson Franklin, 2010), unlike the other study which only had two training sessions (as opposed to four or eight) and tested for any reconsolidation effects within 24 hours of the last training session (Cammarota, Bevilaqua, Medina, Izquierdo, 2009). These findings show evidence that memory reconsolidation may only occur in specific instances, with the two studies giving evidence that training strength and time may be two factors which affect reconsolidation. Research into finding the prerequisites of reconsolidation would be beneficial. One study looked at the limitations or boundaries of memory reconsolidation (Wang, De Oliveira Alvares, Nader, 2009). In the study Wang, et al. (2009) looked at the effects of strong training on fear-associated memory and reconsolidation. The data suggested that when 10 pairings were used instead of one the memory did not undergo reconsolidation until after thirty days have passed. By looking at the molecular mechanisms the researchers found that certain NDMA receptor subunits have to be stimulated in the BLA during reactivation of the memory to begin reconsolidation. They found that strong training could inhibit the activation of the NR2B receptor subunit which resulted in the fear stimulus not triggering reconsolidation. These results suggest that even though reconsolidation exists there are certain prerequisites that have to be met to start the process, such as the strength of the training and the time that has elapsed since encoding. These limitations may be the reason why some studies have not found a reconsolidation effect. These research articles show that reconsolidation is an actual process of memory. Reconsolidation can be the mechanism which enables our memories to be modified or updated since the memory that undergoes the process is activated often in situations which present additional complementary information (Lee, 2009). Since old, well-established memories can undergo reconsolidation there exists the possibility to exploit the destabilisation of the memory and either disrupt or even erase it completely (Milton Everitt, 2010). Therefore reconsolidation could be seen as an adaptive technique which can potentially affect or guide future behaviour. This has many potential applications. Many psychiatric disorders are due to underlying aberrant memories, such as drug addiction (Milton Everitt, 2010). Drug addiction is a chronic and relapsing disorder whereby the main risk of relapse comes from the presentation of environmental cues which have been previously associated with harmful drug use (Font Cunningham, 2012). These cues are memories which can possibly be targeted and changed by memory reconsolidation to influence future behaviour. One study looked at reconsolidation and alcohol dependence in mice (Font Cunningham, 2012). The mice were trained with either a strong or weak conditioning process. The animals were then given an injection of propranolol, a receptor antagonist and tested for memory consolidation a day later. The test found that memory retention was not affected by the antagonist. The study examined the effects of propranolol after the reactivation of the memory therefore the antagonist was introduced after reconsolidation had started. A study that looks at the effects of an antagonist that has been introduced before reconsolidation has started may yield different results. One study looked at drug-associated memories and their relationship with amygdala NMDA receptors (Milton, Lee, Butler, Gardner, Everitt, 2009). They hypothesised that NMDA receptors in particular glutamate receptors within the amygdala are crucial for the consolidation between environmental conditioned stimuli and the effects of addictive drugs, therefore the NMDA receptors must be crucial for the reconsolidation of drug-associated memories (Milton, et al., 2009). The study used a behavioural task that measures the conditioned reinforcing properties of a drug-paired stimulus by first exposing the stimulus, then injecting a NMDA receptor antagonist before a memory reactivation session. They found that the antagonist disrupted drug-associated memory and decreased the conditioned reinforcement effect. This effect lasted four weeks which was the length of the experiment. Although there was a link found when the receptor antagonist was injected before the reactivation session there was n o difference when the drug was introduced after the session which indicates that the receptor may only have a limited role in reconsolidation. These results suggest that controlling the glutamate levels at the NMDA receptor may be useful in preventing relapses although further research has to be done, particularly on the actual effect of NDMA receptors on reconsolidation and the length this effect lasts for. In summary the current knowledge of reconsolidation is quite sufficient to have an impact in psychological applications such as treating drug addiction. Knowledge about the specific physiological mechanisms of reconsolidation from animal studies is a good foundation to advance towards human experiments. Further research into the specific physiological mechanisms which underlie reconsolidation would help create effective treatment plans as would moving from animal studies to human trials. References Alberini, C. M. (2011). The role of reconsolidation and the dynamic process of long-term memory formation and storage. 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