Physiological Principles for Health and Social Care

Question: Describe about the Physiological Principles for Health and Social Care. Answer: 1.The anatomical features in each of the body systems interact with each other for keeping the organism healthy. All of them have various functions and operations that are dependent and interconnected with each other. The brain functions by receiving information and signals from the various organs and responds to those signals for maintaining proper functioning (Standring 2015). The main anatomical systems of the human body have been listed below. Digestive system Endocrine system Immune system Lymphatic system Nervous system Muscular system Reproductive system Respiratory system Urinary system Integumentary or skin system The instructions are given by the nervous system by the electrical impulses and send them through the nerves for commanding and functioning of the various organs. The nutrients are broken down by the digestive system and help them to enter the blood stream that is mediated by the circulatory system. The heart pumps blood into the lungs that involve the circulatory system and the lungs pump oxygen into the blood that involves the respiratory system. All the organs that make up the organ system are protected by the skeletal system and the muscular system connects the muscles with the bones and brings about the physical activities. The integumentary system houses all the systems under one roof by the skin (Forbes 2012). Cardiovascular system is the organ system that causes the blood to circulate throughout the body and transport the essential nutrients, gases, blood cells and hormones with it. These materials are transported to and from the body cells and help to provide nourishment, fight diseases, stabilize pH and temperature and maintenance of homeostasis (Houdas and Ring 2013). The essential organs of the cardiovascular system include the heart, blood vessels and blood and there are two types of circulation, pulmonary and systemic. Respiratory system is the biological system involved in the respiratory process in an organism. The system acts as a medium for the intake and exchange of the gases oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the environment. In the human body, lungs are the organs chiefly responsible for respiration. The process of ventilation and breathing involves the processes of inhalation and exhalation. Inhalation is the process of intake of oxygen and exhalation involves the expulsion of carbon dioxide (Hall 2015). Urinary system is also known as the renal system that consists of the vital organs like kidney, bladder, urethra and ureters. Nephrons are the functional units of the kidneys (Sherwood 2015). The primary functions of the urinary system include the elimination of the body wastes, regulation of blood pressure and blood volume, controlling the levels of metabolites and electrolytes and regulation of the blood pH. Cellular metabolism is a collection of chemical reactions that takes place in the human body for maintaining life. It involves the complex sequences of some biochemical reactions that are controlled and are also known as metabolic pathways (Gropper and Smith 2012). These pathways allow the human beings to reproduce and grow by maintaining their structures and respond to the changes in the environment. Cellular metabolism can be classified as catabolism and anabolism. Anabolism is a constructive process of metabolism wherein energy is used by the cells for constructing molecules like nucleic acids and enzymes and aids in the performance other important functions of life. There are three basic stages of anabolism like precursor production, reactive form activation and assembling the precursors into the complex molecules. Catabolism is the process of metabolism in which the complex molecules are broken down by the cells. The main purpose of these reactions is providing the components and energy required buy the anabolic reactions. Catabolism is an exothermic process that is further classified as protein, fat and carbohydrate catabolism (Mady 2013). The cells of the human body are dependent on the products of the digestive system and the respiratory system for maintaining themselves. For producing energy, cellular metabolism is required where the cells burn the nutrient molecules that are fuelled by oxygen (Herman 2016). The digestive system provides nutrient molecules and oxygen is provided by the respiratory system. Therefore, both these systems work together to provide the cells with the oxygen and nutrients that are required to produce energy by the process of cellular metabolism. Growth hormone is also known as the human growth hormone or somatotropin is a peptide hormone that is secreted by the pituitary gland from the anterior lobe. It promotes the growth of all the body tissues that also includes the bones. It is secreted and synthesized by the somatotrophs and is vital for the physical growth of the human body (Chapman et al. 2013). It essentially acts by production of more cells during the developmental stage. Biochemically, growth hormone stimulates the synthesis of proteins and increases the breakdown of fat for providing the energy that is necessary for the growth of the tissues. The hormone also antagonizes the actions of insulin. They act directly on the cells and tissues but the liver stimulation and other tissues that are responsible for releasing and producing the insulin-like growth factors mediate its effect. These factors act by mimicking the actions of insulin and stimulate growth (Mayo, Godfrey and Suhr 2013). However, the secretion of the growth hormones are stimulated by the growth hormone releasing hormone and somatostatin inhibits it. The secretion of these hormones is pulsatile and the secretions surge after deep sleep are commenced. After puberty, the concentration of the hormones keeps decreasing. The secretion of growth hormone increases with the decreased intake in food and the physiological stress and it is decreased with response to the food ingestion (Harvey et al. 2015). The abnormalities in the growth hormone secretion affect the body as it leads to either overabundance or deficiency of the hormone, exhibiting their respective effects. The function of growth hormone in children is to promote growth and in adults, it helps to cause metabolism and maintain the normal structure of the body. It also helps to keep the levels of blood glucose within controlled levels (Sonntag et al. 2012). The release of the hormone is not continuous and it releases in the form of bursts after every three or five hours. 2.Everyday physical activities involve movements of the body that help to burn calories. The student does a number of physical activities during his college hours that require the co-ordination of all the organ systems that provides him with the energy and facilities. These help him to carry out his daily physical activities during his daily college hours. Physical activities are a type of exercise that involves repetitive movements that require energy for developing or strengthening the body parts (Lovallo 2015). The primary organ systems involved in the process are respiratory, cardiovascular, digestion, excretion, etc. Though all these systems act together to give the individual the required energy to perform, but respiratory system is one of the most important systems that is required for the everyday physical activities. An increase in the physical activity causes an increase in the respiratory activity of the muscles than it is as rest. The breathing gets heavier and faster during the different activities at the college hours that may also include sports (Levi 2013). The rate of breathing increases until the muscles reach their maximum limits of intake of air. The maximum capacity of oxygen intake is tested during the time of sports activities and more the capacity, more is the fitness. For an efficient physical activity, it has to be well supported by the respiratory system for proper gaseous exchange. The respiratory system includes the body parts like lungs, nasal cavity and the diaphragm. The respiratory system is chiefly responsible for transporting carbon dioxide and oxygen to and from the tissues and muscles. While performing the daily physical activities, there is an increase in the respiratory system for meeting the demands of the muscles that are working (Parizkova 2012). The respiratory system also keeps into the loop the cardiovascular system and the supporting organs like heart, blood vessels and blood for transporting carbon dioxide and oxygen. During a stressed physical activity like climbing stairs or playing an outdoor game, the adrenal gland increases the secretion of the hormones noradrenaline and adrenaline affects the heart and the transportation of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the body. These hormones influence directly the sympathetic nerves for stimulating to beat harder for increasing the stroke volume. In addition, the heart beats faster for facilitating an increased heart rate so that an overall increase is achieved in the cardiac output (Kenney, Wilmore and Costill 2015). The human body requires more oxygen while in motion than while at rest. For meeting the increased demand for oxygen by the working muscles, extra oxygen has to be supplied by the blood vessels. While performing the physical tasks, the sympathetic nerves act by stimulating the veins to be constricted for allowing more blood to return to the heart (Kisner and Colby 2012). This returning blood contains carbon dioxide collected from the muscles and increases the stroke volume by about 30% - 40% of the heart. After receiving excess amounts of carbon dioxide and oxygen transported from the different organs, the rate of breathing and respiratory rate increases. This increase of respiratory rate is also influenced by the sympathetic nerves that stimulate the muscles that are involved in the increased respiratory rate. While at rest, the rate of breathing is 14 per minute whereas, during physical activities, the rate is 32 per minute. This increased rate of respiration promotes the reaching of oxygen to the lungs and delivery of blood to the muscles (Goodman and Fuller 2014). The respiratory system has two portions of respiratory and conducting portions. The conducting portion provides the passageways for the gases in and out of the body. The respiratory portion is the actual site of gaseous exchange. The transition from the resting state to the activity stage is accompanied by an increase in the rate of respiration. It also depends on the environment of the college where the student performs his physical activities. If the environment of the college is hot and humid, heat loss is inhibited and the internal body temperature increases (Everly Jr and Rosenfeld 2012). Therefore, gaseous exchange rate also increases at the capillary and alveolar levels. The blood vessels in the lungs are dilated and surface area of the air sacs is enhanced. Supposedly, if the student is overweight or obese or has any type of lung disease, the respiratory functions are impaired and the respiratory rate of the student is limited, with limited physical activities. While performing the physical activities during the college hours, the student come across several internal activities that require coordination with homeostasis. Homeostasis is a steady and constant environment that the body maintains despite the external changes due to the physical activities. Pounding of the heart, heavy breathing and sweating are the vital physiological factors for maintaining the state of homeostasis by the body (Penev 2012). Due to the physical activities, the levels of blood oxygen, body temperature, hydration and sugar levels are all affected and require the preservation of the water levels and normal temperature. Drinking excess fluids and proper eating helps the body to maintain the homeostasis. Heat is produced while food is converted to energy. This additional heat causes an elevation in the body temperature that is kept under control by homeostasis. Dilation of the blood vessels in the skin increases the blood flow to the skin thereby causing more dissipation of the heat from the skin. This causes sweating and therefore the body temperature gets cool and steady. Delivering nutrients and blood to the working muscles helps to keep the body temperature within a normal range. During the physical activities, the muscles demand more oxygen and the body responds to the situation by increasing the heart rate, thereby increasing the blood supply to the working muscles (Hansen et al. 2013). This phenomenon is supported by the hormones that facilitate the supply of nutrients and oxygenated blood to the muscles causing a steady maintenance of the body temperature. Carbohydrates are broken down into glucose for meeting the immediate need for energy. During physical activities, the glycogen stores in the liver and muscle break down for increasing the levels of blood glucose. The glucose so released helps to maintain the energy needs and helps to prevent dizziness and weakness and this can be prevented by maintaining high glycogen storage in the body. Therefore, the student must eat a diet that contains high levels of carbohydrate for maintaining his energy level throughout the day. 3.Hypertension is a medical condition where the arterial blood pressure is elevated. High blood pressure for a long term leads to the pathological conditions like heart failure, stroke, coronary heart disease, vision loss, peripheral vascular disease along with chronic kidney disease. The routine tests that the GP could have recommended for him are temperature, breath rate, pulse rate, body mass index, blood pressure, blood and urine tests, basal metabolic rate, chest x-ray, stress test and electrocardiogram. Ethical considerations should be regarded as an important parameter that is associated with the dignity, individual rights and privacy of the patient while conducting the routine measures for hypertension. Since the patient is a 65 year old man and the routine measures include several complicated medical tests, therefore the patient might get anxious or show disagreement for the tests. Therefore, these have to be dealt ethically keeping in mind the condition of the patient. Regarding BMI of the patient, if he is an obese patient, then he should be observed in a non-judgmental manner irrespective of his physical appearance. Any type of refusal or negligence may hurt the dignity of the patient and the individual right of the patient for proper treatment may get affected (Gooding et al. 2014). Therefore, ethical considerations have to be maintained, as it is required for the health and social care issues like monitoring the progress, legal issues and decision making for the continuation of the treatment. Since the patient is aged, therefore, he may have the complications of pulse rate and the routine measurement can exhibit elevated pulse rates. The elevation may be due to several reasons like excessive alcohol intake, emotional state of anxiety and fear, sedentary lifestyle, etc. as all these contribute towards the occurrence of hypertension. The patient should be counseled ethically without hurting the privacy of his personal life and ask him to live a healthy life as this will lead to progress of his health (Harris et al. 2016). Food intake of the patient should be recorded appropriately and the data should be kept confidential for maintaining privacy or this will lead to the legal breaching of information. Blood tests should be done with proper consent of the patient, as it will provide with proper decision-making liberty as the test may hurt him. Blood pressure and respiration rate studies have to be done at the correct settings, as this will require the exposure of his body. Doing it in public may affect his dignity and further monitoring of the progress becomes difficult, in terms of the health and social care. For hypertension, measurement of the vital signs is extremely important that includes the measurement of body temperature, pulse rate, respiration rate and blood pressure. Body temperature of an individual varies is highly dependent on the recent activity, gender, fluid and food consumption and time of the day. The range of normal temperature ranges from 97.8C to 99C and they can be recorded rectally, orally, by skin and ear and axillary ways (Jennings and Touyz 2013). Abnormal body temperature may be due to fever or hypothermia. Increase in temperature causes fever and decrease in temperature cause hypothermia and these are related to the fever for hypertension and hypothermia for hypotension. Pulse rate measures the heartbeats per minute. Flow of blood from the arteries causes it to contract and expand and helps to measure the pulse strength and heart rhythm. The normal range of pulse rate for the healthy adults is 60 100 beats per minute. Fluctuations occur in the rates with illness, exercise, emotions and injury. It is measured by counting the rate from the arteries as blood flows through them by placing the fingertips over the arteries. The time is noted by a clock and is counted for 60 seconds. For the patient with hypertension, the patient will have higher pulse rates. The number of breaths per minute at rest measures respiration rate. The normal range for respiration rate ranges from 12 16 breadths per minute and it is measured by counting the number of times the chest rises. It increases with illness, fever and other pathological conditions. However, the patient with hypertension will have no significant effect or little-elevated effects on the respiration rate. Blood pressure is measured with the help of a stethoscope and pressure cuff and measures the pressure of blood on the walls of the arteries. Hypertension leads to high blood pressure and the systolic and diastolic pressures are elevated. Body mass index is the body mass that is divided by the square of the body height. For the measurement, the height and weight of the patient have to be collected and calculated using the formula given below. BMI = Mass (Height)2 Hypertension is a result of higher BMI and more the weight of the patient or if the patient is obese, more is the risk of developing hypertension. Electrocardiogram or ECG measures the organ damage in a patient with hypertension. Various parameters are measured using the device like left arterial enlargement, ventricular premature beats, myocardial ischemia, etc. If the patient is having any complexity of the heart other than hypertension, it will be reflected in the ECG report (Hackam et al. 2013). The GP will be provided with the information that is gathered from the reports of the routine measures and further care planning have to be established. Since the patient is also experiencing chest pain, therefore immediate intervention has to be provided. Since the patient is aged, his arteries have got stiffened and excessive force is required for expelling oxygenated blood through his arteries. Poor diet can further worsen the case. Consuming more than 1.5gms of sodium can result in water retention in the body and increases the heart workload. High fat diet can cause narrowing and blockage of the heart. From the routine measures and present condition of the patient, a care plan have to be designed that will cause effective recovery of the patient (Gmez-Marcos et al. 2012). Administration of Lisinopril 10mg on a daily basis will lower the blood pressure as it is an ACE inhibitor. Future episodes of hypertension can also be prevented with the medication. Regular monitoring of the blood pressure is also essential. Foods high in sodium and fat have to be avoided as they cause water retention and narrowing of the arteries, thereby promoting hypertension. 4.The body structure and functioning declines with aging as the vital organs start losing their functioning. The body's tissues, cells and organs affect the functioning of the all the systems of the body. The nervous system of the body is responsible for controlling the memories and thoughts, senses and movements. The nervous system also controls bowels and heart. With aging, the nervous system along with the brain undergoes natural changes along with aging. The spinal cord and brain start losing weight and nerve cells and transmission of nerve impulses slows down (Moore, Dalley and Agur 2013). Breakdown of the nerve cells may result in the accumulation of the waste products in the brain and can cause abnormal changes like tangles and plaques to form. Lipofuscin also starts to build up in the nerve tissues that affect the senses and result in lost sensation and reflexes, causing problems with safety and movement. Aging has its impact on the respiratory system as well where there is a downfall of the maximum functionality. The lungs undergo many changes due to aging that ultimately affects the breathing process of the elderly patients. There occurs a decrease in the gaseous exchange and peak airflow. The lung function of vital capacity also decreases. The respiratory muscles get weakened and the effectiveness of the mechanisms for lung defense also declines. The older person loses their ability to perform vigorous physical activities and exercises. Age-related heart diseases also cause several limitations as they are related to the respiratory system for performance of vigorous exercises. Lung functions also are reduced by obesity. Aging also makes the older susceptible to pneumonia after a viral or bacterial infection (Schore 2015). Therefore, they have to be immunized for influenza and pneumonia to prevent the occurrence of such infections. Although there are no symptoms in healthy aged peop le for reduced lung functions, it is reflected in their reduced ability to performing tasks. The woman is of the age 85 years and is suffering from two diseases, commonly seen among the elderly population. In addition, there have been several changes in her body structure and functioning. This is because her body cells are also aging and they are losing their functionality along with the increasing age. This is affecting the tissues and ultimately the organs and organ systems and is being exhibited in her changed body structure and functions. The woman is suffering from diabetes type 2, knee arthritis and a wound on her leg. These pathological conditions have impact on her body structure and functions. Diabetes type 2 can cause long-term damage to the different organs of the body and can lead to diabetic complications. Since it acts on the nerves and blood vessels, so they can affect any organ or organ system. It takes time to develop the complications but they can be controlled with a restricted lifestyle and proper medications. Since the woman is having the disease since last few years, therefore it has affected her several body organs. Diabetes type 2 has profound effects on the heart. It leads to coronary heart disease, as it is a major cause of hypertension and increased cholesterol levels, thereby promoting cardiovascular diseases and heart attack. It also affects the eyes with the complication of diabetic retinopathy. The blood vessels in the retina start leaking and swelling and causing the condition (Inzucchi et al. 2014). Diabetes affects kidneys as well with the complication of diabetic nephropathy and is a result of several years of diabetes. Diabetes also affects the nerves causing tingling or numbness in the feet and hands, excessive sweating, delayed emptying of stomach, etc. All these symptoms contribute towards the development of diabetic neuropathy. Digestion is another aspect that gets affected by diabetes causing diarrhea, constipation and nausea. Knee arthritis or osteoarthritis is an arthritis of wear and tear type that causes several complications of the knees. There occur swelling and stiffness in the joints and the straightening and bending of the knees become difficult. Vigorous physical activities intensify the pain and give a feeling of buckling and weakness of the knee. Resting or sitting position may worsen the swelling and pain, especially in the morning (Juhl et al. 2014). The woman is having the wound on her leg for a long time and it is not getting well chiefly due her complication of diabetes. Endothelial progenitor cells primarily produced in the bone marrow are responsible for wound healing. Due to diabetes, the formation of these cells is reduced and the process of wound healing is elongated. Routine care of the woman should include different interventions for the different pathological conditions. The preliminary care for diabetes type 2 starts with proper exercise and diet. Low glycaemic index and high fibre sources of carbohydrate with low-fat foods are the primary requirements for a proper diet for the condition. Weight should be under control and weight gain should be avoided. Controlling the blood glucose level with regular monitoring is essential and this is done by several pharmacological interventions. Sulfonylurea and Pioglitazone have been the drug of choice for this condition, along with Metformin. Insulin dose titration is also recommended in typical cases. Blood pressure control along with renal monitoring and serum lipid levels have to be under control and regularly evaluated (Scheen and Paquot 2013). There is no cure available for arthritis of the knee, however, the symptoms can be controlled. Light exercises can improve the condition and help to lose weight. Medications have to be administered as per the requirement, depending upon the pain intensity (Sluis et al. 2015). Assistive devices can give support to the knee like a splint that helps in flexible movement of the joint. 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